Livestock Production Systems

Livestock production systems are as varied as the types of livestock kept and the different social, economic and environmental systems that they are maintained in. A variety of policy instruments, tools and technologies can improve sustainability can lead to benefits in relation to poverty reduction and conservation of resources. Classifications of production systems have been based on different types of livestock management combined with a mix of agro-ecological, climatic and topographic zones, and on geographical location. Major types of production systems include: Grazing systems Mixed crop-livestock systems Industrial and Landless systems Within the different production systems there are a range of different groups of livestock keepers. For simplicity these have been described and classified under five different Livestock Keeper Groups.

General Characteristics of Livestock Production Systems Semi Arid (Crop Livestock and Rangeland) Production Systems Forest Agriculture Interface Production System High Potential Production System Peri-Urban Production System Distribution of Numbers of Poor by Production System and Continent Livestock Keeper Groups References and Further Reading

A broad classification of livestock production systems, into four main types, has been proposed by FAO (Seré & Steinfeld 1996). These are (i) grassland-based pastoralism and ranching (ii) mixed-farming, either (ii.a) rainfed or (ii.b) irrigated, and (iii) landless, mainly pig and poultry production systems. In Table 1 below, a distinction is also drawn between small-scale, often traditional, production systems and the large scale commercial types of system. The majority of the poor engaged in livestock production are likely to use small-scale methods, listed on the left, although some rural people may have expanded their production into commercial systems or have found employment in large-scale commercial enterprises.

Table 1. Types of livestock production system

Adapted from Seré & Steinfeld (1996)

General Characteristics of Livestock Production Systems

Grassland-based systems are dependent on ruminant livestock, such as camels, llamas and other camelids, cattle, sheep and goats, and are mostly found in arid or semi-arid regions of the tropics (our "semi-arid" category), and or colder upland temperate zones. The description of pastoralism as being a 'small-scale' and 'semi-subsistence' system is somewhat misleading, since some pastoral herds and flocks are very large, while livestock may be raised, largely for sale to provide cash for the purchase of staple crop products. A clear distinction may be drawn between pastoralism, which requires little physical capital (other than that embodied in the livestock) and is labour intensive, and ranching which requires relatively little labour and is capital intensive. Human population densities are low in both systems, while poverty is transient, rather than chronic, and may for example be the result of periodic droughts.

Mixed crop-livestock production systems are important as the source of the bulk of ruminant livestock production and the home of the majority of the world's poor. Complementary relationships exist with livestock, fed on crop by-products and other plant material, contributing manure, additional sources of food and income, savings and a buffer against risk. As intensity and livestock numbers rise, crop-livestock interactions become increasingly competitive, for the use of land and other resources. As an alternative to the rainfed-irrigated distinction, the mixed crop-livestock group may be divided into "forest-agriculture interface" corresponding roughly with the small-scale semi-subsistence group of rainfed farms, and "high potential" for irrigated systems and livestock producers expanding into commercial production.

Landless livestock systems provide most of the world's production of pig and poultry meat. They are largely responsible for the rapid growth in average meat supply per person in the developing countries, poultry production having doubled over the last 10 years. Poultry meat now accounts for more than half of all meat produced. Ruminant fattening, in feed lots, is less important. Reproduction and growth rates are faster in pigs and poultry than in the ruminant species of livestock, and so too are concentrate feed conversion rates. However, housing and hand feeding increase capital requirements and labour costs. Much of the expansion has been due to increased production from large-scale, commercial and "peri-urban" enterprises.

Concerns have been expressed regarding the limited benefits to the rural poor, stemming from large-scale commercial systems. However, these systems provide employment in production and processing, while contract production by small-scale producers for the large processing and marketing companies, occurs in several countries. Risks of environmental pollution of soil, air and water are associated with peri-urban systems. It is also suggested that the use of special (exotic) breeds of pigs and poultry may lead to loss of indigenous genetic material. However, pig and poultry production converts feed efficiently and provides a cheap source of animal protein. Rather than opposing commercial production, efforts are needed to alleviate the adverse environmental effects, to facilitate market access for small-scale producers, and to conserve the potentially important genetic material inherent in indigenous livestock breeds.

The livestock production systems descriptions mostly used used in this toolbox are based on four generic production systems as defined by DFID's Renewable Natural Resources Research Strategy (1995). They conveniently describe land-based systems dealing with crop production, forestry and livestock.

The Livestock Production Programme (LPP) has modified the DFID production systems in attempt to link the two descriptions together. Overlap exists between the systems as they are based on a mix of climate, topography, agro-ecological zone and geographical location. Consequently some of the activities of resource-poor farmers may be associated with two or more of these production systems. These production systems are similar to those used by Sere and Steinfeld (1996) and also referred to in the livestock maps of Thornton et al (2002).

The production systems used in the toolboxes encompass agriculture, livestock, forestry and fisheries sectors and are therefore less precise than those referred to above which are restricted to livestock systems. They are a useful means of searching the toolbox for relevant information and were originally devised by planners of DFID's Renewable Natural Resources Research Strategy in 1995 as commodity or resource-based production systems for priority targeting of research activity. Six RNR production systems were selected as targets for sectoral research support; only four of these have relevance to the livestock production toolboxes.

 

Semi Arid (Crop Livestock and Rangeland) Production System

Semi-arid production systems are found in regions where the mean monthly temperature is above 18C and where there is one or more season during which evapo-transpiration exceeds precipitation. Although the mean annual rainfall is in the range of 400-1200mm, its poor distribution during the year results in water being a major constraint to livestock and crop production. Droughts are not infrequent in these regions and the production systems need to have appropriate coping strategies.

These regions often have high populations of small scale farmers and occupy large areas of many DFID target countries (India, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia ,Ghana and Mexico). These are grassland-based systems where over 90% of dry matter fed to animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased feeds and less than 10% of total value comes from crops. Annual average stocking rates are usually less than 10 livestock units/ha.

Because of the importance and extent of this production system to very large numbers of resource-poor livestock keepers and the high degree of importance assigned to livestock in the farm household economy, LPP have further subdivided this production system into:

The increasing numbers of agro-pastoralists in the world inconveniently span both groupings but are included here under semi-arid production (rangelands) system for convenience.

Forest Agriculture Interface Production System

The forest-agriculture interface production system is characterized by the co-existence of forest, agriculture and livestock systems within a common habitat. Such co-existence can be spatial e.g. agricultural practices at forest margins, and pockets of agriculture and livestock keeping within forest areas, or they may be temporal, where habitat/land use patterns have changed (or may change) within relatively short time scales and where the legacy of previous patterns of land use may influence sustainability of subsequent patterns e.g. agricultural production systems on land previously under natural forest in the humid forest belts. The system is characterized by natural rainfall and by wide temperature/humidity values spanning both temperate and tropical/humid conditions. These areas are often isolated from urban centres and consequently includes subsistence farming systems (including slash and burn).

Smallstock (pigs, poultry, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs) tend to dominate these systems although draught animals are sometimes kept to open up land. Hillside systems at the forest-agriculture interface are also included and are found in regions over 2000 metres in elevation, characterized by steep slopes. Soils are variable but often fragile, subject to erosion, and are often of low inherent fertility. Lack of rainfall is not normally a major constraint, but excessive rainfall can cause problems of runoff, impaired soil stability and high rates of soil erosion. Target LPP countries are India, Nepal, Kenya, Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico.

High Potential Production System

High potential production systems are found in regions characterized by amenable climate (temperature, rainfall - supplemented by irrigation where rainfall is erratic or unfavourable) and by fertile soils with no inherent structural and physico-chemical constraints. Where markets are close-by, there is a tendency to specialize in producing livestock commodities for sale (milk, eggs, meat) although subsistence farming is also commonly practised elsewhere. Some peri-urban areas may also be classed as high potential from the point of view of access to resources, proximity to markets and productive capacity of the systems employed. Economic growth based on Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) is often focused in high potential systems and these regions offer opportunities for improving rural employment. LPP high potential target countries are Kenya, Uganda, Bolivia and Bangladesh.

Peri-Urban Production System

The peri-urban interface is characterized by strong urban influences, easy access to markets, services and other inputs, and by ready supplies of labour, but by a relative shortage of land (and consequently a shortage of feed/forage) and by high risks from pollution and urban growth. The peri-urban sector is increasingly dominated by specialist cash-croppers, milk and egg/meat producers in semi-intensive systems.

Urban based agriculture and livestock production is different and, with increasing urbanization, is becoming increasingly important to the resource-poor, disenfranchised and landless households in sub-Saharan Africa. Smallstock are kept, often under a "scavenging system" for both subsistence and sale purposes. LPP target countries are Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Bolivia, India and Bangladesh.

Inter-regional differences in livestock production systems depend upon agro-ecological features, human population density and cultural norms (For general discussion of world farming systems see Dixon, Gulliver & Gibbon 2001). Although livestock production systems vary considerably between regions within countries, some broad differences may be identified between continents and linked with the availability of natural resources. Results are given in Table 2. Landless systems are omitted from this analysis as their prevalence is largely independent of the natural resource base and climatic conditions. Furthermore, given that much of the production is from large-scale, commercial systems, the numbers of dependent poor people may be relatively small, and included in the numbers of poor not allocated to the other systems.

The data provided in the first four rows of Table 2, on land availability per head of the agricultural population and the proportion of cropland which is irrigated are derived directly from the FAOSTAT database (FAOSTAT 2005). These figures reveal striking differences, between continents, in agricultural population density and the importance of irrigation. The remaining six rows of the Table are taken from a GIS mapping study of poverty and livestock systems in the developing world (Thornton et al 2002). The country membership of the different continental groups differs slightly from that used in FAOSTAT, but the broad estimates do serve to illustrate the overall pattern of livestock production systems. The three rows recording extent of climatic zones, is based on the mapping of livestock systems by land area, whereas estimates in the last three rows give the proportions of the total numbers of the poor engaged in each type of farming system

Table 2. Land use per head of agricultural population, distribution by agro-ecological zone (AEZ) and proportion of poor within livestock production systems

Sources: FAOSTAT 2005; Thornton et al 2002

Livestock production systems in sub-Saharan Africa

In Sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural population density is relatively sparse, so that land endowments per person are quite good. However, much of the land is classified as arid, and only a very small proportion of the crop land is irrigated. Grassland based ruminant production is prevalent in the arid/semi-arid areas but most people are supported by, and most ruminant meat and milk is produced from, mixed rainfed farming systems. Mixed farming is practised in both semi-arid and humid regions along with some in the temperate highlands of East Africa. There is some limited development of pig and poultry production, particularly in peri-urban areas. Overall levels of production and consumption per capita are low and improving rather slowly.

Livestock production systems in South Asia

In contrast South Asia, including India, is densely populated, with very limited land resources per person depending on agriculture. Much of the land area is arid or semi-arid. However, a high proportion of the crop land is irrigated. Thus virtually all the ruminant livestock production is derived from mixed production systems, either irrigated or rainfed. Little meat is consumed but milk production and consumption have grown rapidly: India is now the world's largest milk producer. Poultry meat production and consumption have also grown rapidly albeit from a fairly low base.

Livestock production systems in East and South East Asia

The land resource availability per person in agriculture in East and South East Asia, including China, is similar to that in South Asia, the only difference being that most of the land area is classified as 'temperate'. Most of the livestock are produced on mixed irrigated and rainfed farms, but the main species are pigs and poultry (with ducks important in irrigated areas) rather than ruminants. Milk production and consumption are very low. However, the production and consumption of pig and poultry meat and eggs are high and growing fast, in countries like China and Thailand.

Livestock production systems in Latin America and the Caribbean

Land resources per head of agricultural population, in Latin America and the Caribbean, are higher than in other parts of the developing world. This low agricultural population density is linked with higher than average levels of urbanization and per capita incomes. Only about a third of the land supporting livestock systems is arid. The extensive grassland of the 'pampas' allows production of grazing animals, including sheep and other small ruminants. Nonetheless, rainfed mixed farming systems are the source of most of the ruminant production. Landless poultry and pig production is expanding rapidly, particularly in Brazil. Overall livestock production and consumption per person are considerably higher than in most developing countries, and are increasing quite rapidly.

Livestock production systems in the Near East and North Africa

Land areas per person dependent on agriculture, in the Near East/ North Africa, are high but the climate over much of the region is arid or semi-arid. A substantial proportion of the crop land is irrigated. The large areas of 'permanent pasture' carry ruminant stock, mostly sheep and some camels. The majority of ruminant stock are raised, however, on mixed farms, many of which are irrigated. No pigs are kept but landless poultry production systems are expanding in number. Livestock products make a relatively small contribution to human diets, but the contributions from milk and poultry meat are increasing.

Continental comparisons of livestock production systems

Comparison of the main developing country continents, shows that Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Near East, with reasonably large areas of land per person engaged in agriculture, have a greater proportion dependent on grassland-based, ruminant livestock systems than do the more densely populated, land-scarce, regions of South and East Asia. Nonetheless, in all the continents listed, most of the agricultural population are engaged in mixed farming systems. These are mainly rain-fed in Africa and Latin America but, in South and Eastern Asia and the Near East, about half are irrigated. Poultry production is a key enterprise in Latin America, particularly Brazil, and in East and South East Asia, mainly Thailand and China which is also a major pig producing country. South Asia is the largest milk producing region.