Animal Welfare

General animal husbandry should be concerned with the provision of conditions where animals can grow, develop and produce, with sufficient feed (both quantity and quality), water, health care (both preventative and curative) and shelter so that they are under a minimum of physical stress. They should be handled quietly and efficiently, because contented animals grow faster, produce more and have fewer reproductive problems than agitated ones, that waste energy on nervous movements. It is in the interests of the owners to always try to improve those aspects of animal welfare over which they have control.

Background Feeding Water Preventative Treatments Curative Treatment Handling Mercy Killing References and Further Reading

Animal welfare is a subject that has taken on increasing importance in recent years. In the developed world, much discussion has focused on the provision of sufficient physical space for animals kept under extremely intensive conditions. When kept in permanent confinement in an over-crowded situation, animals become nervous and often show signs of aggression towards one another (e.g. biting of tails in pigs, pecking in chickens). Broiler chickens kept in very small, individual cages, get so little exercise that their bones fail to develop properly and they often suffer from unwarranted injuries such legs that break under the weight of the growing body. Most of the welfare issues that relate specifically to commercial broiler production - both in developing and developed countries - are a direct consequence of genetic selection for faster and more efficient production of chicken meat, and associated changes in biology and behaviour.

The conditions that have attracted most attention in the developed world are not commonly found in the small-farm sector in the tropics, where animals are seldom kept in permanent, close confinement. There are, however, other stresses which affect the animals, some of which are noted below, and which are covered in more detail elsewhere in this toolbox.

For animals to grow and produce normally, they must be well-fed (see sections on animal nutrition and feeding). Every effort should be made to provide sufficient feed of appropriate quality to fill the nutritional requirements of the animals. In areas with a long, dry season, the provision of sufficient protein is a particular problem, which needs to be addressed on an annual basis. For small ruminants kept on grass-based pastures, well-made silage or legume leaf meal are useful supplements that contain much more protein than the general pasture during the dry season. The preparation of these feedstuffs are described in other sections. Pigs and poultry will obtain much of their protein requirements from smaller creatures such as earthworms, frogs and insects, if they are allowed to scavenge in damp areas along water-courses. Pigs in tropical Bolivia, for example, make good use of the fallen fruits of native palm trees. If these feeds are unavailable or if animals are permanently confined, other supplementary sources of high-protein feeds (e.g. commercial feeds, cooked legume seed) will need to be provided by the owners.

A permanent supply of clean, fresh water should be provided for all livestock.

If animals drink from a stagnant water source, such as a swamp, or a slow-flowing stream, they will be exposed to a range of parasite pests, including liver-flukes, which will have a serious effect on their health and welfare. It is impossible to stop scavenging or backyard livestock from drinking at such sources, but they will be less inclined to expose themselves to risk if they are provided with clean water at night and in the morning, before being released to roam freely during the day.

Animals should be vaccinated against the main diseases that are commonly found in their natural area. Some health problems, such as Newcastle Disease, can cause the rapid death of a large proportion of an unvaccinated flock, while others such as Foot and Mouth Disease in cattle and small ruminants, are seldom directly responsible for deaths, but they can lead to debility and seriously reduced productivity, by reducing animal mobility and feed intake. Local veterinary services will be able to advise on an appropriate vaccination programme for each species of animal on a farm in a particular area.

Internal and external parasites reduce the productivity, particularly of young animals, and ticks act as vectors for the transmission of a number of fatal diseases, such as Heartwater and East Coast fevers. These pests need to be regularly controlled, but in many areas, they have developed resistance to some acaricides that were effective in the past. Internal parasites can be controlled by dosing, while a spray or a bath may be necessary to kill external parasites. Veterinary advice should be obtained locally, regarding frequencies and products that are still effective in a particular area.

Curative Treatment

Animals should be frequently inspected for wounds, swellings and obvious symptoms of ailments. Some will occasionally suffer cuts and accidental damage from other animals in the herd, or from the environment in which they are kept. In some species, serious fights may occur between competing males, particularly at mating time. When open wounds result, apart from the risk of infection, in many areas in the tropics and sub-tropics, there is a danger that flies and other insects will lay eggs in the wound. When the eggs hatch, the grubs that emerge will eat into the flesh of the animal. This will reduce the value of the hide and, if not treated, will lead to lost productivity and even death. Open wounds should be immediately treated with a disinfectant wound powder or a healing oil, to reduce losses.

Swellings should be inspected, to determine the cause of the problem. If it is an infection, possibly resulting from a thorn or an untreated wound, it may be possible to lance it with a sharp knife, to allow the pus to escape. Subsequent treatment with an antiseptic wound powder should then solve the problem. If no obvious, physical cause can be seen, the animal should be placed in isolation and veterinary advice obtained.

If animals are confined for long periods on soft bedding, the hard, outer shell of the hoof will not be worn away by walking and the animals may suffer from over-grown hooves. This will lead to lameness, which will reduce both mobility and feed intake. In the early stages, the hooves may be corrected by forcing the animal to walk for long distances on rough ground, to wear away the edges of the hooves. By the time that lameness is obvious, it may be necessary to cut away the hard edges with a sharp knife, or a pair of secateurs.

Animals should be handled as quietly as possible, to keep stress to a minimum and to make it easier to work with them. Animals that are used to frequent and gentle contact with the same humans will be easier to vaccinate, treat and move around than animals that have been seldom handled, have been treated roughly, or are often exposed to new people. This is particularly important in the period just before slaughter. The meat from an animal that has been made nervous and chased around immediately prior to being killed, will be much tougher than meat from a similar animal that has been handled quietly and confidently in the same period.

If an animal is so badly injured, or so sick that it is unlikely to recover, it is kinder to kill it to put it out of it’s misery than to leave it to suffer. In the case of physical injury, the meat can be sold, or used by the household and if slaughtered relatively early, before it suffers severe weight loss due to debility, there will be more meat on the carcass. If the animal is extremely sick, veterinary advice should be obtained, because it may be too much of a risk to human health to consume the meat. In the case of infectious diseases, the carcass should be burned and the remains buried in a deep grave, well away from wells or bore-holes.