Feed Management

The objective of feed management is to provide a balanced diet for livestock all the year round. The needs of individual animals are always changing, according to internal factors, including the physiological state of the animal (species, breed, growth, mating, pregnancy, etc.), and to external factors such as climatic stress and challenges from diseases and parasites. In addition, there are several feed management techniques that can be used in feed preparation, handling and delivery that can affect animal performance and, consequently, nutrient excretion.

Background Methodology Sheep and Goats Pigs Poultry Guinea Pigs Preparation and Delivery References and Further Reading   See also: Feeding and Nutrition

It is a difficult task to accurately meet these changing requirements with the limited resources and economic realities facing the small farm sector in the tropics, but there are some basic guidelines that should be followed as far as possible:

• Animals that are in full production (milk, eggs, etc.) will respond to the best diet that can be provided and it may be economic to give them a feed supplement over and above the normal diet, in order to increase their productivity.
  
• Young, growing animals will grow faster if given a good quality diet and will therefore reach slaughter or selling weight more quickly. An improved diet may be very profitable if it brings animals to market in time for special occasions (Christmas, carnival, or other festivals etc.) or when animals are in scarce supply and prices are high.
  
• Both males and females should be given an improved diet in the period leading up to mating, as this will increase the chances of successful pregnancy. Females should be given a better diet just before farrowing or lambing, as this will ensure good levels of milk production for their offspring.
  
• Mature, adults animals that are not in a productive phase have the lowest requirements in terms of feed quality.
  
• A simple feed inventory can be a valuable management tool when planning a livestock feeding programme. By completing a feed inventory, you can
  1. determine your available feed supply,
  2. estimate your total feed needs for your planned herd size,
  3. Make sure that you have sufficient feed available at critical periods (e.g. before farrowing or lambing, and during lactation), and
  4. adjust livestock numbers or plan feed purchases when prices are favourable.

 

Many factors influence the feed requirements of small animals. In general, except where climatic conditions (drought or excessively cold weather) stop plants from making active growth, a diet based on pasture and browse is normally adequate for sheep and goats. Non-ruminant species, however, including pigs, poultry and rodents require a more highly digestible diet to enable them to thrive and be highly productive. When allowed to scavenge for their food, these species are usually capable of finding small animals (frogs, earth-worms, etc.), insects and naturally occurring seeds, which provide some high-quality, easily digestible protein. However, if they are kept in confinement, the owners must take steps to provide this important fraction of the diet.

All species of livestock have a greater need for better quality feed when they are in full production (milk, eggs) or when they are growing fast. The provision of better feed to all breeding animals in the period leading up to mating will be rewarded by higher pregnancy rates. Improved feeding of the mothers in the period just before giving birth will ensure a good supply of milk for their offspring. The animals that are least demanding in terms of feed are the mature adults that are not in a productive phase (e.g. dry females that are not pregnant, males that are not preparing for the mating season).

On small farms in the tropics, it is usually impossible to adjust the diets of individual animals on a daily basis to meet their changing nutritional requirements, but productivity will suffer if the diet does not include sufficient quantities of all of the necessary components (energy, protein, vitamins and minerals) that are described elsewhere in this toolbox. It is a continual challenge to match available feed resources to animal requirements at all times of the year.

For more on requirements for energy, protein, vitamins and minerals

As an example of steps that can be taken to improve the diet, in some parts of both the Kenya Highlands and tropical Bolivia, it has been common in recent years to grow a few mulberry (Morus alba) trees, often trimmed as a small hedge, around the farm compound. Although not a legume, mulberry leaves are well accepted and highly digestible by most species of livestock. If manure or fertilizer is regularly applied to the trees, the leaves and soft twigs have a crude protein content in the range of 15-18 per cent. Not enough material is usually available for it to be used as part of a general feeding programme, but small amounts are cut and fed to sick, or unthrifty animals, where it acts as a tonic. The high nutritional quality and the ease of digestion often has a rapid, positive effect on animal health and appetite. Many farmers have seen the benefits of this practice, which is spreading quickly as a result of farmer-to-farmer extension.

For small ruminants, whether allowed to graze or kept in confinement and fed on cut forage, a suitable basis for year-round production is pasture which includes both grasses and legumes. The main component for grazing can be any of a range of tropical grasses such as Bermuda and Star grasses (Cynodon spp.), Panic grasses (Panicum spp.), Signal grasses (Brachiaria spp.) etc., although in tropical Bolivia, a constant diet of pure Brachiaria decumbens produced severe symptoms of photosensibility (excessive sensitivity to sunlight, leading to severe sunburn, loss of appetite and morbidity) in hair sheep. The problem did not occur if animals were rotated on a fortnightly basis between the signal grass and a different grass species, such as Green Panic. If grown in association with herbaceous tropical legumes, such as Glycine (Glycine wightii), Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum), Rabbit Vine (Teramnus labialis), Tropical Kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) etc., any of these grasses are capable of maintaining good levels of production all year round.

For mixed, grass-legume pastures to support high stocking rates over long periods of time, it is best to allow an area to be grazed by sheep for about a week, followed by 4-5 weeks rest. This will prevent over-grazing and eventual loss of the legume content. With goats, the rest period can be reduced to 3-4 weeks, because, at least in Jamaica, these animals only eat the fully expanded leaves of the legume. Since they do no damage to the growing buds, recovery during the rest period is extremely rapid.

When stall-fed, it is common to offer high-yielding grasses such as Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), or King grass (hybrids of P. purpureum with P. typhoides), chopped into short lengths of about 1-2cm. This is usually mixed with foliage from a highly productive tree legume such as Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium or Calliandra calothyrsus, in a ratio of about one part of fresh legume to four parts of chopped grass.

Alternatives to the use of fresh, leguminous fodder include the use of dried legume leaf meal, or of purchased concentrate, such as dairy meal, which usually has a guaranteed protein content of about 16 per cent. For dairy production with cattle, 1kg of dry matter from fresh Calliandra calothyrsus had the same effect on milk production as 1kg of dairy meal (Paterson et al., 1999). There are no experimental results available from dairy goats, but it is likely that the effect would be similar.

When pigs are allowed to scavenge, particularly in crop fields after harvest, or along water courses and in natural grassland, they are usually able to obtain most of their nutritional requirements. In tropical Bolivia, the fallen fruits of native palm trees are an important seasonal source of feed. When they are in full, or partial confinement, however, most of their feed must be provided by their owners. Commercial feed is usually too expensive for small-scale systems, so use is often made of crop residues, chopped cassava, cracked grain, household wastes or the whey left behind after the home production of butter or cheese. The seed of herbaceous legumes such as Mucuna pruriens or Lablab purpureus is particularly valuable for these animals, although it should be cooked before feeding, to destroy the anti-nutrient factors that are often present in legume seeds.

Like pigs, scavenging chickens and ducks will usually be able to find most of their feed around the home compound, although they will benefit from a small, regular amount of cracked grain and kitchen wastes. This supplementary feed is best placed in their shelters in the evenings, as this will encourage the birds to return to their shelters at night, where they will be safe from common predators. If it is necessary to confine them, cracked grain should form the bulk of the diet, while the outer leaves of vegetables such as lettuce and cabbage will be well consumed.

For laying hens, a small amount of dried legume leaf meal fed at least three times a week, will provide enough carotene to give the egg yolks an attractive, deep yellow colour. In some markets, eggs with a strong yolk colour can demand a premium price, which more than covers the cost of production of the leaf meal.

Development initiatives in the past have emphasized genetic improvement, usually through the introduction of exotic genes and hybrid varieties, assuming that improved feed would have no effect on indigenous birds and that these have low production potential. However, there is a growing awareness of the need to balance the rate of genetic improvement with improvement in feed availability, health care and management. Introduction of hybrid birds without increased inputs in terms of feed and health care can result in greater mortality and a decrease in production. There is also an increased recognition of the potential of indigenous breeds and their role in converting locally available feed resources into sustainable production.

In tropical Bolivia, guinea pigs are kept either in their own small, raised installations, or are allowed to roam free in the kitchen building on the farm. In this way, it is easy to give them kitchen scraps, such as carrot tops and waste leaves. A plot of herbaceous legume, often tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) is grown specifically for them and a small area is cut daily for the provision of fresh, or slightly wilted fodder. The area of legume should not be directly grazed by other livestock, since this could pass on parasites to the guinea pigs. If there is a surplus, it should be cut and offered to other small livestock on the farm.