General Livestock Husbandry Issues

Animal Production is a wide and complex subject, which has many components. Basically, it is concerned with keeping livestock well-fed, healthy and under conditions where they can thrive. The objective is to make best use of all available resources, to best satisfy the requirements of the owners of the animals. In order to discuss the wider subject of animal production, it is convenient to separate out certain components, such as nutrition, or health, for special, particular consideration. Other aspects, such as housing, animal welfare, breeding, etc. can then be considered together, under the general heading of Animal Husbandry. This approach has been adopted in the present toolbox. However, it is important that all aspects of animal husbandry, including feeding, nutrition and health are assessed together - in a holistic manner - when considering any livestock development programme.

Housing, Fencing and Tethering Improved Animal Breeding Feed Management From: Recomendaciones basicas para la alimentacion de animales menores, (aves, ovinos, cerdos y cuyes). Click on image to view.

It must always be remembered that there are clear and strong interactions between all of the distinct parts of the wider subject, even if, for the sake of clarity, they are discussed separately. A change to one aspect of animal production will affect other aspects and this is illustrated by the following examples. This is not intended as an exhaustive list of the inter-relationships that exist, but merely to highlight some of the obvious links between topics that are discussed in more detail elsewhere in the toolbox:

• Well-fed animals are more resistant to the effects of parasites and diseases than poorly-fed animals of the same breed, age, etc. If an animal comes down with a fatal disease, however, the best feed in the world will not save it if what it needs is veterinary treatment. Vaccination will confer resistance to some common diseases, but poorly fed, or housed animals will be prone to diseases for which there is no effective vaccination.
  
• An animal with high genetic potential will out-produce an animal of poor breeding, provided that conditions of feed, disease control, housing, etc. are all favourable. If one of these factors is less than satisfactory, however, the animal of higher potential is likely to suffer most and may even die, while the poorer-bred one will be more hardy and is likely to at least survive, until conditions improve again.
  
• The provision of good housing can improve the productivity of livestock by giving protection from cold, damp and predators, but inappropriate, or insufficiently hygienic housing can lead to higher incidence of parasites and diseases, which can reduce productivity.
  
• An animal subjected to constant, rough handling may become so nervous that it will not eat sufficient of the feed available to it. It will then become more prone to diseases and parasites and less productive.

Animal production in the small farm sector in the developing world is subject to many constraints. It is not feasible to try to provide perfect conditions for the raising of any species of livestock, but the aim should be to ensure that the basic requirements are met to the best of the ability of the farm family. If animals are well cared for, they will be more productive and this will ensure a better supply of animal products, either for sale or for home consumption. Good care of livestock will include selecting the appropriate species and breeds of animals and the provision of adequate nutrition, health care, housing, hygiene, etc. to allow the animals to live and produce under a minimum of stress.

Housing for smallstock at the smallholder level can mean anything from custom built structures for housing improved breeds of dairy sheep, goats and pigs, or poultry, to simple rustic wooden/metal/plastic shelters to protect animals from the elements, from theft, from attack by other animals, road traffic etc. Cages of various descriptions are commonly used to confine or control smaller stock such as poultry, guinea pigs, or rabbits. For some smallstock, particularly those that scavenge near the household during the day (e.g. village or backyard chickens) night time housing may be next to or even shared with the livestock keepers or owners themselves.

The requirements for housing, shelter and related facilities for smallstock management can be categorized as follows:

	Protection	Housing provides shelter and protection from rain, sun, heat and cold.
	Fencing	Fencing enables improved management of grazing resources; separation of livestock groups, e.g. for management of breeding; as well as protection from predators and against theft. Fencing also helps to prevent damage to crops.
	Tethering	An alternative to fencing, which can be used for growing pigs and for both large and small ruminants.
	Facilities for Feeding and Water	Adequate facilities and structures for feeding and water are an essential component of livestock management.
	Other facilities required for working with smallstock	Management and handling of animals is much more difficult when animals are not confined in some way, while isolation of sick animals, or the planned mating of superior individuals, are almost impossible practices in the absence of simple installations.
	Manure management	Manure should be removed from animal shelters to prevent the build-up of diseases and parasites. If collected and applied to crops in a rational manner, it is a valuable resource, replacing some, or all of the purchased fertiliser that must be used to obtain high crop yields.

The provision of housing and secure, fenced enclosures for small animals is often seen as an expensive luxury in small-scale production systems, but they can often be made largely from materials available on the farm and they serve several, diverse purposes. Well-constructed installations protect animals from the elements (rain and extremes of temperature), from attacks by predators and from the spread of infectious diseases, while at the same time, keeping nearby crops safe from unwanted grazing damage. They keep animals away from the family accommodation and so help to prevent the spread of parasites to human beings. They make livestock handling and management easier and allow planned mating of individual animals, which is the basis of any genetic improvement in the flock or herd. Modest investment in appropriate housing and fencing can make the keeping of small animals a more profitable enterprise on small-scale farms, whether the animals are intended for home consumption or for sale.

It is commonly believed by farmers and policy-makers alike, that the introduction of improved breeds of livestock will automatically lead to an increase in animal production.

Unfortunately, this is simply not true and in practice, an improvement in the genetic quality of the animals can lead to a reduction in productivity, unless all aspects of management (feeding, housing, health, husbandry, etc.) are adequately addressed as well.

The objective of feed management is to provide a balanced diet for livestock all the year round. The needs of individual animals are always changing, according to internal factors, including the physiological state of the animal (species, breed, growth, mating, pregnancy, etc.), and to external factors such as climatic stress and challenges from diseases and parasites. In addition, there are several feed management techniques that can be used in feed preparation, handling and delivery that can affect animal performance and, consequently, nutrient excretion.

It is a difficult task to accurately meet these changing requirements with the limited resources and economic realities facing the small farm sector in the tropics, but there are some basic guidelines that should be followed as far as possible:

• Animals that are in full production (milk, eggs, etc.) will respond to the best diet that can be provided and it may be economic to give them a feed supplement over and above the normal diet, in order to increase their productivity.
  
• Young, growing animals will grow faster if given a good quality diet and will therefore reach slaughter or selling weight more quickly. An improved diet may be very profitable if it brings animals to market in time for special occasions (Christmas, carnival, or other festivals etc.) or when animals are in scarce supply and prices are high.
  
• Both males and females should be given an improved diet in the period leading up to mating, as this will increase the chances of successful pregnancy. Females should be given a better diet just before farrowing or lambing, as this will ensure good levels of milk production for their offspring.
  
• Mature, adults animals that are not in a productive phase have the lowest requirements in terms of feed quality.
  
• A simple feed inventory can be a valuable management tool when planning a livestock feeding programme. By completing a feed inventory, you can
  1. determine your available feed supply,
  2. estimate your total feed needs for your planned herd size,
  3. Make sure that you have sufficient feed available at critical periods (e.g. before farrowing or lambing, and during lactation), and
  4. adjust livestock numbers or plan feed purchases when prices are favourable.